Health
Discovering the 100% effectiveness of a drug in preventing HIV
Published
2 months agoon
![HIV](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/63099356.jpg)
![HIV](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/63099356.jpg)
Scientists say that a new drug for the prevention of the HIV virus (HIV) has shown 100% effectiveness in a clinical trial.
Discovering the 100% effectiveness of a drug in preventing HIV
A large clinical trial in South Africa and Uganda has shown that a twice-yearly injection of a new HIV prevention drug before exposure gives young women complete protection against infection from the virus.
The trial tested whether a six-month injection of the drug, called lenacapavir, provided better protection against HIV infection than two other drugs, both pills that must be taken daily. It should be mentioned that all three of these drugs are preventive drugs (PrEP).
Linda Gale Becker, medical scientist and deputy director of the Desmond Tutu Center for HIV at the University of Cape Town’s Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine and the study’s principal investigator, explains what makes this breakthrough so important and what to expect in the future.
He talks about this trial and what has been considered and achieved. This trial was conducted with 5,000 participants in three locations in Uganda and 25 locations in South Africa to test the effectiveness of lenacapavir and two other drugs.
Lenacapavir is a capsid inhibitor that interferes with the capsid of HIV. The capsid is a protein shell that protects the genetic material of HIV and the enzymes needed for its replication. This medicine is injected under the skin every six months.
The randomized controlled trial, sponsored by the drug’s developers at Gilead Sciences, tested several subjects.
The first was whether a six-month injection of lenacapavir is safer than daily Truvada F/TDF, which has been widely used and available for more than a decade and can provide better protection against HIV infection as a preventive measure. For women between the ages of 16 and 25 years old or not.
Second, the trial also tested whether taking a newer pill called Descovy F/TAF daily was as effective as Truvada.
Descovi pill is newer and has superior properties than Truvada. Pharmacokinetics refers to the movement of drugs into the body. The Descovi pill is also smaller than Truvada.
This experiment was conducted randomly and in a double-blind manner. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers knew which participants received which drug until the end of the clinical trial.
HIV and AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a type of slow-spreading virus (retrograde virus with low replication speed) and the cause of AIDS. HIV attacks the vital cells of the body’s immune system, including helper T lymphocytes (CD4+ T), macrophages, and dendritic cells, and is a virus that disrupts the function and destroys a type of cells responsible for immune coordination, leading to the failure of the human body’s immune system, which It is called AIDS.
It may take between 6 months and 15 years from the time HIV enters the body until the onset of AIDS. During this time, although a person may appear to be healthy, the virus may spread from him to others.
HIV is mainly transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse, transfusion of infected blood and contaminated needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. Some body fluids such as saliva and tears cannot transmit HIV. Prevention of HIV mainly through safe sex and needle exchange programs is considered as a solution to prevent the spread of this disease.
AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is also a type of disease that is caused by the entry of HIV and the attack of the immune system by this virus. The disease caused by HIV has three main stages. In the first stage (acute infection), a person may experience an influenza-like illness for a short period, which, of course, does not happen to all people, for this reason, the disease is usually followed for a long period without any symptoms, which leads to this stage of The disease is called the incubation period.
As the AIDS disease progresses, the body’s immune system becomes weaker and people suffer from more infections such as infections and opportunistic cancers and tumors. Of course, it usually shows a lower incidence in people whose immune system works well. Finally, the disease will enter the third stage, or AIDS when the number of CD4+ T cells reaches less than 200 cells per microliter.
Young women in East and Southern Africa are the population bearing the brunt of new HIV infections. Also, taking medications daily is challenging for them due to social and structural reasons.
During this clinical trial, none of the 2,134 women who received Lancapavir became infected with HIV, which means that the drug was 100% effective.
In comparison, 16 of 1,068 women (1.5 percent) who took Truvada and 39 of 2,136 (1.8 percent) who received Descovi became infected with HIV.
The results of an independent review by the Data Safety Monitoring Board led to the recommendation that the “blind” phase of the trial should be stopped and that all participants should be given a choice.
This panel is an independent committee of experts who are formed at the beginning of the clinical trial. They monitor unblinded data at specific times during the trial to monitor progress and safety and ensure that the trial is continued or stopped if there is clear harm or benefit in one group over the others.
What is the importance of these tests?
This success gives great hope because it shows that preventive drugs can be effective in protecting people against HIV.
Last year, 1.3 million new HIV infections were reported worldwide. Although this number is lower than the 2 million infections observed in 2010, it is clear that at this rate we will not reach the target of reducing HIV prevalence to less than 500,000 people worldwide by 2025, and may not even reach We will not reach the goal of ending AIDS by 2030.
Preventive drugs are not the only means of prevention
Preventive medications should be provided alongside access to condoms, screening and treatment for sexually transmitted infections, and access to contraception for women of reproductive age.
In addition, young men should also be circumcised for health reasons.
Despite these options, we are not yet at the point where we can stop new infections, especially among young people, the researchers say.
For young people, taking the pill daily or using a condom or taking the pill during intercourse can be challenging.
HIV scientists and activists hope that young people will embrace it, given that it only needs to be injected twice a year. For a young woman who for social reasons cannot take the pill every day, just two injections a year is an option that can save her from contracting HIV.
What is the next plan?
The plan is to continue the trial now in a non-double-blind fashion. This means that participants will have a choice between using any of those three drugs.
Another trial is also being planned. The test is being conducted among transgender people in a number of regions, including some parts of Africa.
It is important to conduct trials between different groups because researchers have observed differences in the effectiveness of drugs. Also, the type of sexual intercourse is important and may affect the effectiveness of the drugs.
Read more: Skin cancer: symptoms, prevention and treatment
How much time is left until the release of the drug?
Gilead’s press release stated that within the next few months, the company will submit the case with all the results to a number of national authorities, particularly those in Uganda and South Africa.
The World Health Organization will also review this data and may issue recommendations based on it.
The researchers say, we hope that after that this new drug will be used in the guidelines of the World Health Organization and countries.
We also hope to see the drug tested in more studies to better understand how it might combine in different real-world settings, the researchers say.
Of course, the price of this drug is a vital factor to ensure its access and distribution in the public sector.
Gilead Sciences has said it offers licenses to companies that make generic drugs, another important way to keep prices down.
In an ideal situation, governments could purchase the drug at an affordable price and make it available to everyone who wants it and needs protection against HIV.
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Health
The secret of the human heart; How did evolution make the vital organ of our body unique?
Published
5 days agoon
31/08/2024![heart](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Capture-19.png)
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The secret of the human heart; How did evolution make the vital organ of our body unique?
From the giant blue whale to the tiny insectivore, mammals inhabit almost every corner of our planet. Their amazing adaptability to different environments has long fascinated scientists, as each species has developed its own characteristics to survive and thrive in different environments.
Despite the wide biodiversity of mammals, until recently it was thought that the structure and function of the heart is similar in all species. But a new study by a team of researchers from Swansea University’s School of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences in Wales shows that the human heart is an exception, and is strikingly similar to the hearts of our closest relatives, the great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, Orangutans, and gorillas are different. But what is the reason for the difference in human hearts?
Humans diverged from chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ), our last common ancestor with the great apes, about five to six million years ago. In contrast, humans evolved to stand and perform more physical activities, such as continuous hunting and developed much larger brains.
The changes in the human body were associated with a very high increase in the need for metabolism; The body needed more blood to pump blood from the heart to the muscles and brain. A new study shows that the human heart has adapted to support standing on two legs, moving around, and growing a bigger brain.
Humans evolved to stand and perform continuous physical activity
Over the past 10 years, researchers have conducted numerous assessments of the cardiovascular system of great apes around the world. The study’s research team managed to collaborate on this project with veterinarians and care workers in the UK, Europe, Africa and Asia. One of the important aspects of this collaboration and evaluations was the use of cardiac ultrasound, which can be used to examine the structure and function of the heart, the size and manner of contraction, twisting and rotation of the heart muscle.
Researchers have concluded in previous studies that the structure of the human heart may be different from the heart of a chimpanzee. Using ultrasound of the heart, they found that the left ventricle of the heart, which is where the heart pumps the heart, in chimpanzees has bundles of muscle embedded in “turgidized” tissue.
Trabeculation or trabeculation refers to the formation of small and network-like muscle bundles inside the ventricles of the heart. Tortigated tissues are like little blades that help the heart muscle to work better when pumping blood.
Comparison of left ventricular tortification in great apes.
The aim of the researchers in the new study was to investigate the structure of tortiginated tissue in other great apes. They found that other great apes have the same heart structure as chimpanzees. In contrast, humans have a smooth wall in their left ventricle. This difference is especially obvious at the bottom of the left ventricle. In the lower part of the left ventricle, the smoothness of the human heart is approximately four times greater than that of the great apes.
A single heart meets our need for more physical activity and a bigger brain
The study not only showed structural differences in the left ventricle of humans compared to great apes but also found a major difference in how the hearts function. Using a specialized technique called speckle tracking echocardiography, which follows the movement of the heart muscle during contraction and expansion, the researchers investigated how this muscle thickens, twists, rotates, and stretches.
The results of the examination of the hearts were surprising. The lowest rate of tortuosity is seen in the human heart, but it was much higher during contraction, twisting, and turning in the lower part of the human heart. In contrast, great apes, with heavily tortiginated hearts, exhibited less motion.
Researchers believe that the human heart evolved from the tortiginated structure seen in other great apes to increase its ability to twist and contract more efficiently. This increased torsion, along with the smooth walls of the ventricles, probably allows the human heart to pump more blood with each beat. This satisfies our need for more physical activity and a bigger brain.
The findings of the study challenge the hypothesis of the sameness and similarity of the structure of the heart in all mammals. Instead, subtle but critical differences in cardiac anatomy and function have emerged in response to unique environmental challenges.
Cardiovascular diseases
A new study by researchers reveals the secret of the evolution of the human heart. However, the research in the field of analyzing the heart of endangered great apes is still going on. Unfortunately, the leading cause of death in captive great apes is cardiovascular disease.
Unlike humans, great apes do not appear to develop coronary artery disease. But their heart muscle undergoes a fibrotic process (thickening or degeneration of the fibers) that leads to weak contraction and susceptibility to arrhythmia, a critical problem in heart rhythm regulation. The cause of this disease remains unknown, therefore, a group of researchers in the International Primate Heart Project evaluated the cardiovascular physiology of great apes around the world to gain a better understanding of this disease.
Prior to the current project, little was known about the normal cardiovascular physiology of great apes. Through a collaboration with veterinarians, the new study has yielded critical data and critically improved our understanding of the evolution of the human heart, as well as the understanding, diagnosis, and management of cardiovascular disease in great apes.
The findings of the study have been published in the journal Nature.
![coffee](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/https___cdn.cnn_.com_cnnnext_dam_assets_150929101049-black-coffee-stock.jpg)
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Can coffee consumption cause weight loss?
Most people feel refreshed after drinking a cup of coffee in the morning. Others even feel that this drink has curbed their hunger. Many people on social networks say about the benefits of consuming this drink on weight loss; But researches have just begun to discover how caffeine and other compounds in coffee affect weight.
Several diets and guidelines nicknamed the “coffee escape” have spread since the beginning of this year and have increased people’s interest in drinking coffee or caffeine in order to lose weight. These sources claim that adding homemade spices or commercial supplements to a cup of coffee, or even drinking the mixture all at once, in the first few seconds of the hunger experience, can increase the weight loss effect. Experts are still confused about this claim: Does coffee, and specifically caffeine, help people lose weight? In this case, how long does this weight loss effect last?
According to rumors, coffee, and other caffeinated products can lead to quick and easy weight loss. This rationale is partially dependent on coffee’s ability to stimulate the digestive system. The caffeine in coffee can cause intestinal muscles to contract, which results in bowel movement.
Long-term coffee consumption will not have significant effects on weight loss.
Therefore, the digestive system clears its contents a little faster than usual. On the other hand, caffeine is a diuretic and urinating more can cause a decrease in body water weight. These combined effects on digestion and water weight occur quickly after coffee consumption, but are short-lived and do not result in permanent weight loss. However, coffee consumption in longer intervals seems to have different effects.
Drinking coffee regularly cannot cause significant weight loss
Drinking coffee on a regular basis cannot cause significant weight loss, but it may be able to prevent excess weight in a balanced way. The average person usually gains weight as they age, but professional coffee drinkers usually see less weight gain.
According to a 2023 study that evaluated the coffee-drinking habits of more than 150,000 participants, over a four-year period, drinking unsweetened coffee had a moderate effect on reducing the rate of weight gain, while adjusting for other lifestyle variables. For every extra cup of coffee the participants drank, they were almost 100 grams less overweight than their peers. Of course, most people probably don’t feel such small weight differences.
Other studies have reported similar results. “You’re still gaining weight with coffee, but the weight gain is less compared to others,” says Frank Hu, chair of the department of nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health and author of the 2023 study.
Coffee consumption is also associated with a slight decrease in body fat. According to one study, people who drank four cups of instant coffee in a day had 4% less fat mass. They also lost a small amount of overall weight after the six-month period. These people were compared to a group that drank a drink that tasted and looked like coffee and followed the same diet and exercise habits.
Caffeine, the main bioactive compound in coffee, appears to be one of the main drivers of weight loss. This combination is responsible for activating the process of thermogenesis (heat generation) in the diet or the energy required to absorb and store food. On average, almost 10% of energy is spent on digesting food. Studies have shown that caffeine can increase this amount by increasing people’s metabolic rate.
The higher the metabolic rate, the more energy the body uses at rest. The digestion process speeds up and causes the organs inside the abdomen to use more energy and burn more calories. Overall, the energy boost is small: coffee drinkers may burn 80 to 150 more calories per day, the equivalent of eating a few Oreo cookies. However, those few extra calories lost can add up over time.
Coffee consumption can increase the body’s metabolic rate at rest.
Caffeine is believed to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for regulating the body’s “fight-or-flight” response, and is also involved in blocking adenosine-bound receptors. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleepiness and promotes relaxation. Caffeine then leads to physiological responses in the sympathetic nervous system such as increased heart rate and alertness.
Marilyn Cornelis, assistant professor of preventive medicine at Northwestern University, says that these effects in turn lead to burning more calories. Caffeine can increase fat oxidation, which is the process of breaking down fat stored in tissues to produce energy. The same issue can explain why coffee consumption is associated with fat mass reduction.
Besides caffeine, coffee contains several polyphenols (a type of antioxidant) that can affect weight. Chlorogenic acid, the polyphenol that gives coffee its bitter taste and strong smell, can help maintain stable blood sugar levels. Since food cravings can be linked to blood sugar fluctuations, more stable blood sugar can help regulate appetite. The bitter taste also plays a role in this process. According to some evidence, the gut senses more bitter compounds and regulates appetite hormones to reduce food intake.
Scientists are at the beginning of understanding how chlorogenic acid increases the effect of coffee on the hormones that control appetite and hunger. According to a small study that tracked 126 overweight people, coffee has a regulatory effect on satiety hormones; So that people usually eat less and feel more full after drinking it.
After drinking coffee, participants experienced higher levels of serotonin, a chemical in the brain that can suppress appetite, and lower levels of the hunger hormone ghrelin. These effects were stronger in people who drank coffee containing more chlorogenic acid.
Evidence suggests that coffee can affect appetite and hunger, but this effect may vary from person to person; Therefore, drinking coffee to suddenly reduce the feeling of hunger may not be a realistic expectation. Scientists are still trying to find out if additives like cinnamon and cayenne pepper have a noticeable effect on coffee’s weight loss. But in general, it says that adding these ingredients is harmless.
The effect of coffee on appetite and hunger may vary from person to person
It seems that coffee is generally beneficial for human health. Research has linked long-term coffee consumption to a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, improved cognitive function, and even reduced mortality; But maybe increasing coffee consumption to achieve these effects is not effective for everyone. According to Rob VanDam, professor of nutrition and exercise science at George Washington University, more doesn’t necessarily mean better.
Drinking more than 400 mg of caffeine per day can increase sleep problems, stress and anxiety. A shot of espresso usually contains 60 mg of caffeine; However, popular coffee drinks can contain more caffeine depending on size and roasting.
Flavored lattes or frappes full of sugar and cream are the opposite of black coffee’s weight loss benefits. According to Cornelis, sugar increases calories and coffee is basically a calorie-free drink. He suggests drinking coffee with less sugar and cream.
Overall, coffee can have modest benefits for weight loss, Ho says. So in general, beware of unrealistic expectations from this drink, because drinking a lot of coffee will not significantly change your body weight.
Health
What is the difference between the brain of athletes and the brain of normal people?
Published
2 weeks agoon
25/08/2024![brain](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Capture-12.png)
![brain](https://elixirofscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Capture-12.png)
What is the difference between the brains of athletes and the brains of normal people?
Athletes must be the fastest, strongest or most agile opponents in their competition to win. Record-breaking athletes must go far beyond the known limits of the human body.
But in addition to physical prowess, athletes have a unique set of mental skills that allow them to succeed in their fields. Several studies have shown that the brain of athletes is different from the brain of non-athletes. In this article, we mention some examples of these differences.
Processing visual cues
The ability to quickly receive visual information and make decisions based on it is one of the key skills of athletes, especially in team sports such as football or basketball. According to a 2013 study in the journal Scientific Reports, professional ice hockey, soccer, and rugby players are better visual learners than people with lower abilities in these sports.
Professional athletes in the mentioned sports were compared with elite amateurs such as college athletes and European Olympic Sports Training Center players. They were also evaluated against non-athlete university students. Professional athletes performed better than both groups, performing better on tasks such as focusing on objects and tracking them on a screen. In other words, the brains of these athletes are more skilled in processing dynamic visual scenes or the moving world around them. Elite amateurs were evaluated better than non-athletes.
Jocelyn Faber, author of the 2013 study, told LiveScience that the study’s data could be used to improve training for athletes and determine the best possible time to return to sports after injury. For example, assessing how an athlete can optimally process visual information and not make judgmental errors can prevent their early return to sports and reduce the likelihood of re-injury.
Muscle memory
Acrobatic athletes such as divers and gymnasts must become proficient at executing movement sequences without conscious thought. This phenomenon is called muscle memory.
A 2023 study in the Journal of Neuroscience shows that the brain plans and coordinates repetitive movements, such as those of trained athletes and musicians, by compressing and decompressing important information. At first, the sequence and timing of steps are programmed separately in the brain, but with practice, these separate elements integrate seamlessly into a stream of coordinated brain activity. This process involves a network of neurons in the cortex (outer layer of the brain) that is responsible for regulating movements.
Predictions
In baseball, the hitter must accurately and quickly predict the fate of each ball that the pitcher throws. For example, will the ball enter the strike zone and how fast will it come?
Brain activity also changes based on the hitter’s prediction. Specifically, according to a 2022 study in the journal Cerebral Cortex, neurons in an area of the brain called the left ventral cingulate cortex change in these scenarios. According to the authors, this is likely due to the hitter’s unique ability to associate visual cues about the pitcher’s movements with the potential trajectory of the ball.
Structurally, research has also shown that the superior temporal sulcus (STS) is thicker in professional divers than in novices. The STS is a brain region that plays an important role in motor perception and helps decipher the intentions behind movements. This feature makes sense when diving; Because these athletes often learn by watching other divers perform. Of course, this also applies to other sports.
Balance
Gymnasts like Simone Biles usually have an enhanced sense of space, called proprioception.
Acrobatic athletes such as gymnasts have impressive depth perception skills, or the ability to perceive their body in space. A complex network of neurons in the cerebellum, a region at the base of the brain, allows athletes to quickly correct their trajectory in the air or keep their balance on the machine if things don’t go according to plan.
If the safety network of spatial perception is disturbed, it can cause the athlete to lose control of his body in the middle, with potentially fatal consequences. This happened to American gymnast Simone Biles during the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
Focus and attention
Football players must constantly think about their feet during the match
Athletes must divide their attention appropriately and dynamically switch between different ways of thinking. For example, a soccer player who is dribbling the ball during a match must quickly change his direction if he collides with a player from the opposing team.
The cognitive skills needed to shift attention can be seen in everyday life and tasks such as listening to a podcast while cleaning the house. A 2022 study in the International Journal of Sports Psychology provided evidence that athletes perform much better in this area than non-athletes.
Athletes in team sports that require high-intensity aerobic or interval training have special attention-shifting skills. The researchers found that they stood out because of their cognitive flexibility and their ability to allocate attention appropriately.
It is not yet clear why exercise exercises affect people’s cognition. According to Art Kramer, one of the authors of the study, we need a long-term study or a randomized controlled trial to find out; In such a way that some children undergo sports exercises, while others do not undergo these trainings and then they are monitored over time. However, such research would be unethical; Because doing it requires denying a group of children access to sports.
Resistance to brain aging
Olga Kotelko was one of the greatest-known athletes in her field
The cognitive benefits of exercise training last throughout life. Perhaps there is no better example than Olga Kotelko, a Canadian track and field athlete who holds more than 30 world records. Before Olga’s death in 2014 at the age of 95, Kramer and her colleagues examined her brain in the laboratory.
With age, the white matter of the brain, which is responsible for connecting neurons in different parts, deteriorates. However, the researchers found that the white matter of Olga’s brain remained more intact than that of less active women in the past thirty years, even though she was in her mid-90s.
Elga was also faster in responding to cognitive tasks than other 90-year-olds and had a better memory than them. Of course, general results cannot be obtained from just one athlete. However, according to the researchers, there was only one pattern. Because of this, he offered scientists only a small perspective of the long-term effects of exercise on the brain.
Educating the next generation
Starting sports from a young age helps to improve sports performance at an older age.
Strengthening the brain training of athletes from a young age can lead to more sports achievements in the future. According to Kylie Steele, a sports scientist at the University of Western Sydney in Australia, at some point in an athlete’s training, the human body can’t go further, but cognitive skills can be worked on.
Steele and his colleagues believe that coaches should focus more on athletes’ cognitive abilities, such as memory and decision-making skills. This issue is especially important during the early years of life when the brain is more flexible. In ball sports such as soccer, this type of drill involves asking players to use their non-dominant feet to kick the ball. Steele suggests:
If we encourage more training related to cognitive improvement, especially in the first years, we will eventually have more tactically professional players.
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