If the giant planets of the solar system have rings, and if the asteroids beyond the orbit of Jupiter and the non-Neptunian bodies also have rings, why don’t the moons of the solar system have rings? This absence is illogical considering the presence of rings in other places. As a result, it is better to investigate whether there are underlying dynamical reasons that prevent the formation of rings or their long-term stability around moons.

We have yet to definitively discover an extrasolar moon, but in 2021 Soserkia and his colleagues hypothesized that if a moon had a large ring system, it could engineer its existence by blocking enough starlight. But the group later realized that we have yet to see any ringed moons, so the likelihood of their existence is very low.

When you’re an astronomer with a question in mind and a simulation tool at hand, there’s only one thing you can do: build models of cosmic systems and see what happens when you set them in motion.

There are many raw materials from which rings can form around the moons of the solar system. Some of these materials are dust resulting from the formation of impact craters. Some other moons emit steam or gas of their own, so there seems to be no problem with ring formation.

Considering the gravitational influence of the moon, host planet and other moons, researchers designed and tested physical N simulations and realized that due to these variables, ring formation around moons is difficult.

For example, Saturn’s moon Enceladus releases water vapor, ice particles, and gases from its glaciers in the Antarctic region with its remarkable surface activity. However, instead of forming a ring around this moon, these materials are transported into Saturn’s orbit by strong interactions with neighboring moons, feeding Saturn’s E ring.

In other words, even though the moons produce part of the raw materials necessary for the ring, their surrounding environment makes a large part of these materials available to the host planet and prevents the formation of the ring around the moons themselves.

So far, NASA has discovered 293 moons in the orbit of the planets of the solar system, most of which belong to the planets Jupiter and Saturn. Also, moons around dwarf planets and even asteroids have been discovered.

Soserkia and his team simulated the moons of a variety of solar system objects, from the Earth’s moon to the larger moons of Jupiter and Saturn, over millions of years of evolution. They sought to investigate the stability of these objects, their gravitational environment, possible ring systems, and their changes over time. The results of the investigation were contrary to the expectations of the researchers. Susarkia explains about this:

At first I expected rings to be completely unstable, which directly answered our question. However, contrary to expectation, we found that these structures have maintained their stability in many conditions. Indeed, in a previous paper we showed that isolated moons can have stable rings, but we did not predict that moons would remain stable in harsh gravitational environments despite the large number of other moons and planets that have distributed their rings. Another surprise came when we realized that these harsh environments, instead of destroying the rings, beautified them by creating structures like cracks and waves, which were just like what we see in Saturn’s rings.

Some features of the moons of the solar system are signs of the past of the rings. The simulations suggest that the pebbles found orbiting Saturn’s moon Rhea could be the last remnants of a complete ring system. Also, Saturn’s moon Iaptus has a equatorial groove, which could be the remnant of a ring that fell on this moon, and in this sense, it is just like Saturn’s rings that slowly fall on this gas giant.

The findings show that the reason we do not see rings in the solar system today is that we are not in the right time and place. Solar radiation pressure, magnetic fields, internal heating, and magnetospheric plasma all contribute to the loss of once-existing lunar rings. According to Susarkia:

The researchers believe that further simulations that take into account more parameters, such as beam pressure and magnetic fields, can help us understand the absence of lunar rings in more detail. We should also look more closely at the moons and look for evidence of the past, such as the craters on Iaptus.

At the same time, Suserkia and his colleagues are looking to expand their search and look for moons of rings around alien extrasolar worlds. He explains:

Do aliens sleep? You may take sleep for granted, but research suggests that many possible life-hosting planets may not have a day-night cycle. It is difficult to imagine the absence of day and night, but right now on Earth there are creatures living in lightless habitats in the depths or on the seabed, and they offer a vision of alien life without the existence of a circadian rhythm.

There are billions of potentially habitable planets in our galaxy; But how do we get to this number? The Milky Way has between 100 billion and 400 billion stars, seventy percent of which are cold and small red dwarf stars or M dwarfs.

According to a detailed survey of exoplanets in 2013, approximately 41% of red dwarf stars have a planet in their life belt. At this distance, the planet has the right temperature to support liquid water; Therefore, these planets have the potential to host liquid water.

We still do not know which of the discovered exoplanets have liquid water. However, 28.7 billion planets are only in the red dwarf life belt. We have not even considered the statistics of other types of stars like our sun.

Rocky planets in the habitable belt of an M dwarf are called M Earths. M-Earths are fundamentally different from our Earth. One difference is that M dwarf stars are much cooler than our Sun. Also, M Earths are located at a close distance from their star, and for this reason, the gravitational influence of the star on them is strong.

The star’s gravity exerts a stronger force on the near side of the planet than on the far side. By creating friction, the planet’s rotation slows down until its orbital and translational rotations become synchronized over millions of years. Thus, M fields are likely to be deadlocked; So that one hemisphere of them is always facing the star and the other hemisphere is always behind it.

The year of a mortally locked planet is as long as its day. Earth’s moon also has a deadly lock on us. For this reason, we always see one side of it and cannot observe its hidden side.

A planet in mortal lock looks strange, But most possible habitable planets are of this type. Our nearest planetary neighbor, Proxima Centauri b, located in the Alpha Centauri system four light-years from Earth, is likely a fatally locked M-Earth.

As a result, unlike our Earth, M Earths have no day or night and even seasons; But terrestrial life, from bacteria to humans, has circadian rhythms corresponding to the day and night cycle. Sleep is one of the most obvious consequences of circadian rhythm.

Edwin Powell Hubble known as Edwin Hubble was a famous American astronomer who played an important role in formulating the basic principles of extragalactic and observational astronomy. Historians and astronomy experts consider him one of the most important astronomers in history. Hubble placed the space clouds, which before her time were known as gas and dust particles and were in the category of nebula or nebula, in the category of galaxies.. Historians consider Hubble’s discovery of other galaxies equal to Copernicus’ theory in terms of scientific value. Copernicus proved that the Earth is not at the center of the solar system, and Hubble proved that the Milky Way is not the center of the universe.

One of the important scientific relics of this astronomer is Hubble’s law in space. In short, this law states that the universe is expanding at a constant rate. In addition, in this law, the distance of each galaxy from the edge of the universe is directly proportional to its speed. Of course, this law was discovered two years before Hubble’s presentation by Georges Lemaitre, but its fame came to Hubble. The Hubble telescope is one of the most famous monuments built in the name of this legendary astronomer. An example of this telescope is installed in his hometown of Marshfield, Missouri. This telescope was sent into Earth orbit in 1990 to capture more detailed images of space outside the Milky Way.

Edwin Hubble has another great achievement in the field of cosmology and that is the classification of galaxies. This classification has been used by astronomers for many years. Hubble played a significant role in adding the astronomy category to the Nobel Prize. Of course, the sudden death of this scientist in 1953 prevented him from receiving this award.

Birth and education

Edwin Hubbell was born on November 20, 1889, in Marshfield, Missouri. His mother was Virginia Lee James and his father was John Powell Hubble. His father was a lawyer and insurance businessman. Edwin was the third child out of 8 children in this family. Of course, like many children of those years, some of Edwin’s siblings died in childhood.

Hubbell lived in a rich family that had to migrate many times because of his father’s work style. During these trips, which were generally in cities around Chicago and Illinois, they lived in luxurious houses with many servants. The children of the Hubble family were all brought up with work and responsibility; Because their parents believed that this style of upbringing would increase their sense of responsibility.

Hubble completed his high school education at Wheaton High School near Chicago. He finished high school easily and with excellent grades in English, mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, Latin, and German languages. Of course, in high school, Edwin was more into sports than studying, and he owed his high grades to his innate intelligence. On his father’s advice, he was busy delivering goods on holidays. Finally, Edwin Hubbell graduated from high school in 1906 at the age of 16 and received a scholarship to the University of Chicago. He worked at this university as a laboratory assistant of the famous physicist Robert Millikan (Nobel Prize winner).

Edwin Hubble (left), with friends after returning from Oxford

After entering the university, sports still occupied a large part of Hubble’s time. He was fond of sports such as basketball and boxing. He was a tall and strong person and he left several records during his university days. Edwin Hubble graduated from the university in 1910 with a bachelor’s degree in general science and honors in physics and astronomy.

After graduating from the University of Chicago, Hubbell entered Oxford University with a Rhodes scholarship and studied there for three years. Hubble was quickly influenced by English culture and changed many of his past behaviors and habits and adopted an English appearance. Contrary to his strong interest in experimental sciences and especially astronomy, he chose the field of law theory out of respect for his father and graduated from Oxford in 1912. He stayed at this university for another year and studied Spanish. While studying at Oxford, Hubble had another achievement including traveling around Europe. In these trips, in addition to having fun, he paid special attention to planning and thinking about his future. In those years, Edwin wrote in a letter to his mother:

Work is pleasant when it is for a great purpose and end. A goal so great that the thought of it and the anticipation of its achievements, will remove all the fatigue of the difficult task. When I find the purpose and principles I want, I leave everything for it and dedicate my life to it.

Edwin’s father died in the fall of 1912. He asked his father for permission to leave Oxford to visit him but was refused. Young Edwin remained in Oxford and his father died in January 1913.

Hubble exploring the cave

His Career

Finally, at the age of 24, Edwin entered the field of science, which he had become interested in nearly two decades ago by observing space through the lens of his grandfather’s telescope. Upon entering the observatory, he began his doctoral course in astronomy and received his degree in 1917 with a thesis entitled  Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae. With the outbreak of World War I, Hubble served in the army for a year and rose to the rank of colonel despite not being actively involved in combat. He then went to Cambridge University to study astronomy.

Edwin Hubble started working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California in 1919 at the age of 30. This observatory is famous for its excellent weather and excellent observation conditions. These factors made Hubble research in this place until the end of his life.

Hubble membership card in the army

Scientific achievements

As mentioned, Hubble wrote his doctoral dissertation on nebulae. He continued his research at Mount Wilson using the world’s largest telescope, the Hooker telescope. Hubble’s great discoveries, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way and the phenomenon of redshift, were the results of this astronomer’s research using the Hooker telescope.

In 1912, the American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt published an important discovery related to stars called the Cepheid variable. Beginning in the 1930s, Hubble was able to discover similar stars in nebulae using the Hooker telescope. While studying the Andromeda Nebula, he realized that these stars are very far from Earth and much farther than the stars of the Milky Way.

• His high-quality images of Andromeda and the Triangulum Nebula showed a massive cluster of stars.
• Many of the stars were of the Cephasian type.
• The studied nebula is one million light years away from Earth. 4 times more than all the objects that had been discovered until that time. (Of course, this distance is proven to be equal to 2.5 million light-years today.)
• The diameter of the Andromeda Nebula is 30 thousand light years. (Today, these dimensions have been proven to be 220,000 light years.)
• Andromeda galaxy emits light equal to one billion suns of our system.

Hubble published his findings three days after his 35th birthday. Of course, his discoveries were not published in a scientific journal, but in the New York Times. The results of his research were debated among astronomers for some time, and finally, his paper was reviewed at the meeting of the American Astronomical Society on January 1, 1925. Hubble changed everyone’s view of the universe with his discoveries. He proved that our vast galaxy, host to the Sun and hundreds of billions of similar stars, is only one of the billions of galaxies in the universe.

Andromeda Galaxy

In addition to this discovery, Hubble provided a standard for classifying galaxies that was used by astronomers for years.

Redshift phenomenon

Prominent astronomer Veslu Slifer has also researched nebulae. He stated in his report in 1913 that the light of the nebula tends towards the red color of the color spectrum. He explained his discovery as a form of the Doppler effect. According to the same explanation, the light tends to the red side of the color spectrum as the emission source moves away, similar to the Doppler effect. To test his discovery, Slifer studied many nebulae. He came to the conclusion that the light of many of these nebulae has a fast transition towards red color and as a result, they are moving away from Earth at a high speed.

The required density of matter is several times higher than the estimated maximum density of matter concentrated in the nebula. Furthermore, we have no evidence of significant interstellar matter increasing the density.

Classification of galaxies by Hubble

However, although Hubble had a lot of resistance to accept the effect of redshift, in his research he found that the speed of this expansion is slowing down. However, these findings and research on the speed of galaxy expansion are still ongoing and astronomers discover new issues every day.

One of the historical events regarding the theory of the expanding universe is Albert Einstein’s meeting with Edward Hubble in 1931. The two met at Mount Wilson Observatory. In 1917, in his theory of relativity, Einstein considered the universe to be constant and without change in size. He did not see any end or end to the universe. Although his research showed signs of the expansion of the universe, this scientist tried to deny it by determining a constant called the cosmic constant.

However, the January 1931 meeting earned Hubble the nickname of the man who forced the world’s smartest man to change his mind. This meeting caused Einstein to call his previous calculations the biggest mistake of his scientific life, and as a result, Hubble’s findings became the center of attention in scientific circles.

Edwin Hubble in old age

In addition to scientific research, Edwin Hubble worked hard to convince the Nobel Prize Society to add astronomy to the award’s branches. He intended to add this science to this event as an independent subsection of physics. He believed that the efforts of astronomers in stellar physics should be appreciated. Unfortunately, after Hubble’s death, this society decided to appreciate this science as a branch of physics.

Personal life and death

In 1949, at the age of 59, Edwin Hubbell suffered a heart attack while on vacation in Colorado and was nursed back to health by his wife. Of course, after this incident, the intensity of his research activities decreased until he died on September 28, 1953, due to a blood clot in the brain. He had willed that his burial place should not be known and personal notes were also destroyed by his wife. Grace also died in 1980 and was buried in a secret place next to her husband.

Awards and honors

The Cleveland Newcomb Prize was awarded to Edwin Hubble in 1924. In 1938, he was awarded the Bruce Medal, and a year later, he was awarded the Franklin Medal Science and Engineering Award by the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. The Gold Medal of the British Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to this legendary astronomer in 1940. The Legion of Honor, which is a military award from the US Armed Forces, was awarded to him in 1946 for his research in the field of ballistics.

Hubble Space Telescope

Asteroid number 2069 and a hole in the moon are among the celestial objects that are registered in the name of this scientist. A planetarium at Edward R. Morrow High School in Brooklyn was also named after this scientist, and a street in Missouri was named after Edwin Hubble.

Certainly, the most famous monument of Edwin Hubble is the Hubble Space Telescope, which was launched in 1990. The main purpose of launching this telescope was to accurately calculate Hubble’s constant in his famous formula. Anyway, astronomers with this telescope first considered the number 72 as a constant in 2001, and then in 2006, by studying the microwave background of the galaxy, they reached the exact number 70. In addition, the Hubble telescope made it possible to observe not only the expansion of the universe but also the acceleration of this expansion. Today, the force that caused this expansion is called dark energy in scientific documents.